Manmade Disasters-Chemical hazards, nuclear hazards, forest fire, oil spill and road accidents

A chemical hazard is a type of occupational hazard caused by exposure to chemicals in the workplace. Exposure to chemicals in the workplace can cause acute or long-term detrimental health effects. There are many types of hazardous chemicals, including neurotoxins, immune agents, dermatologic agents, carcinogens, reproductive toxins, systemic toxins, asthmagens, pneumoconiotic agents, and sensitizers. These hazards can cause physical and/or health risks. Depending on chemical, the hazards involved may be varied, thus it is important to know and apply the PPE especially during the lab.

Long-term exposure to chemicals such as silica dust, engine exhausts, tobacco smoke, and lead(among others) have been shown to increase risk of heart disease, stroke, and high blood pressure

Types of hazards

·         Liquids such as acids, solvents especially if they do not have a label

·         Vapors and fumes

·         Flammable materials

Chemicals can change their physical state depending on temperature or pressure. Thus it is important to identify the health risks as these states can determine the potential route the chemical will take. For example, gas state chemicals will be inhaled or liquid state chemicals can be absorbed by the skin.

Routes to exposure

·         Ingestion

·         Inhalation from fumes

·         Poisoning

·         Explosion

Symbols

Hazard pictographs are a type of labeling system that alerts people at a glance that there are hazardous chemicals present. The symbols help identify whether the chemicals that are going to be in use may potentially cause physical harm, or harm to the environment. The symbols are distinctive, as they are shaped like diamonds with red borders. These signs can be divided into:

·         Explosive (exploding bomb)

·         Flammable (flame)

·         Oxidizing (flame above a circle)

·         Corrosive (corrosion of table and hand)

·         Acute toxicity (skull and crossbones)

·         Hazardous to environment (dead tree and fish)

·         Health hazard/hazardous to the ozone layer (exclamation mark)

·         Serious health hazard (cross on a human silhouette)

·         Gas under pressure (gas cylinder)

These pictographs are also subdivided into class and categories for each classification. The assignments for each chemical depends on their type and their severity.

First aid

In case of emergency, it is recommended to understand first aid procedures in order to minimize any damage. Different types of chemicals can cause a variety of damage. Most sources agree that it is best to rinse any contacted skin or eye with water immediately. Currently, there is insufficient evidence of how long the rinsing should be done, as the degree of impacts will vary for substances such as corrosive chemicals. However, the recommended flush time is as follows:

·         5 minutes - non- to mild irritants

·         15 – 20 minutes - moderate to severe irritants and chemicals that cause acute toxicity

·         30 minutes - most corrosives

·         60 minutes - strong alkalis such as sodium, potassium or calcium hydroxide

Transporting the affected person to a health care facility may be important, depending on condition. In the case that the victim needs to be transported before the recommended flush time, then flushing should be done during the transportation process. Some chemical manufacturers may state the specific type of cleansing agent that is recommended.

Long-term risks

Cancer

Cardiovascular disease

A 2017 SBU report found evidence that workplace exposure to silica dust, engine exhaust or welding fumes is associated with heart disease. Associations also exist for exposure to arsenic, benzopyrenes, lead, dynamite, carbon disulphide, carbon monoxide, metalworking fluids and occupational exposure to tobacco smoke. Working with the electrolytic production of aluminium, or the production of paper when the sulphate pulping process is used, is associated with heart disease. An association was also found between heart disease and exposure to compounds which are no longer permitted in certain work environments, such as phenoxy acidscontaining TCDD (dioxin) or asbestos.

Workplace exposure to silica dust or asbestos is also associated with pulmonary heart disease. There is evidence that workplace exposure to lead, carbon disulphide, or phenoxyacids containing TCDD, as well as working in an environment where aluminium is being electrolytically produced, are associated with stroke

Nuclear hazzards

Definitions

Risk or danger to human health or the environment exposed by the radiation emanating from the atomic nuclei is called as nuclear hazard.

(OR)
Nuclear hazard is an actual or potential release of radioactive material at a commercial nuclear power plant or a transportation accident. 

1.   Nuclear Power plants: Subject to meltdown (see Chernobyl Fukushima,Three Mile Island , “accidents” really disasters. The city of Pripyat in the old USSR (Ukraine now) is all but a nuclear wasteland now. Virtually deserted, a shell of what once was a city. This still affects wildlife and people that are close by or were there during the worst nuclear reactor meltdown. Fukushima may be worse, yet the news on it is sparse now so unless you dig it’s hard to find out.

2.   Nuclear waste: It is highly radioactive and has to be either buried or stored in dry casks. Usually burial is done in those odd looking barrels and then dig into a place under the ocean to reduce the radioactivity coming from the extremely slowly decaying isotopes in the spent fuel rods. Sometimes after many years the waste is moved to dry casks.

3.   Nuclear Weapons: well, they can pretty much destroy and sterilize our planet if two or three major countries engaged in an all out Nuclear war.

4.   Nuclear Submarines or any other such vehicle powered by a small nuclear reactor: why? If one is hit the fallout from the reactor is released uncontained into our ecosystem.

5.   Nuclear Materials: Uranium 235 the biggie, these are unstable materials and if not handled properly can create serious problems. This is also a problem for unstable Nations who desire to create nuclear weapons. Thus, creating a black market. Luckily U235 is not easy to come by.

6.   Nuclear Fuel Pools: this is where the spent rods go after being exhausted to cool off. These “pools” are just that. Huge deep bodies of artificially placed water with the sole purpose of storing spent fuel underwater to contain radioactivity before buried or moved to dry cask. The main issue is that they are kept on site at the nuclear reactor. During Fukushima a fuel pool in I believe reactor 4 broke, and released 1000s of 1000s of gallons of nuclear tainted water into the ocean and the local supply. Water does not stay put once in the ocean- it is said that the effects have reached Alaska. This can kill, eradicate and or deform wildlife, animals and food sources to many people.

7.   Underwater disposal: this shit doesn’t go away….. (looking for new image -hang on)

8.   Iconic image of cooling towers - NO the reactor is not inside - they are just a structure used to dispose of excess steam in the process of producing nuclear energy

9.   In spite of grim descriptions of nuclear disasters the actual v evidence of safety for nuclear power is very good. Actually much safer than oil, coal and gas.

10.                Nuclear power statistics show very high safety levels.

11.                Current nuclear power plants are based on obsolete designs over 50 years old. This technology does come with serious risks and the nuclear power industry needs to sustain very high standards.

12.                New technologies are being developed that could bring huge improvements in safety, efficiency, reduced cost and a great reduction of waste and pollution risks.

13.                Some new designs being developed will be able to operate on waste material. Expensive and polluting enrichment of Uranium may not be needed in future. Some molten salt reactors could use depleted Uranium waste, Waste from current PWR reactors, Thorium which is a waste byproduct of rare earth mining and the material from old nuclear weapons.

14.                These reactors can be very efficient with significantly less radioactive waste left for disposal.

15.                Next generation may work without high pressure water cooling and solid fuel rods that risk meltdowns.

16.                New design include inbuilt safety features that greatly reduce the risk of melt down, steam explosions and hydrogen explosions.

17.                Molten salt designs use salt to carry fuel. Current reactors use solid fuel rods with a limited lifespan. Salt can carry fuel indefinitely until the fuel is used up. Solid fuel rods are disposed of with more than 90% of the fuel unused.

18.                There are many new reactor designs available including salt and non salt reactors. Many are US designs but China and India are actually building new reactor designs. Both China and India have a large supply of Thorium. They both face huge growth in power demand and will be building more than 60 new power stations. There are a number of international projects.

19.                It is in the interest of all nations that future nuclear reactors are safer. Involvement in development also allows influence of safety as a major goal.

The greatest hazard of nuclear energy to the human body is radiation. When an atom is split in a nuclear reaction, high energy particles are emitted. If the proper shielding is not in place to protect against these particles it can be very hazardous for people and equipment.

The most common hazard in forests is forests fire. Forests fires are as old as the forests themselves. They pose a threat not only to the forest wealth but also to the entire regime to fauna and flora seriously disturbing the bio-diversity and the ecology and environment of a region. During summer, when there is no rain for months, the forests become littered with dry senescent leaves and twinges, which could burst into flames ignited by the slightest spark. The Himalayan forests, particularly, Garhwal Himalayas have been burning regularly during the last few summers, with colossal loss of vegetation cover of that region.

Causes of Forest Fire

Forest fires are caused by Natural causes as well as Man made causes

·         Natural causes - Many forest fires start from natural causes such as lightning which set trees on fire. However, rain extinguishes such fires without causing much damage. High atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer favorable circumstance for a fire to start.

·         Man made causes - Fire is caused when a source of fire like naked flame, cigarette or bidi, electric spark or any source of ignition comes into contact with inflammable material.

Classification of Forest Fire

Forest fire can broadly be classified into three categories;

·         Natural or controlled forest fire.

Forest fires caused by heat generated in the litter and other biomes in summer through carelessness of people (human neglect) and

·         Forest fires purposely caused by local inhabitants.

Types of Forest Fire

The types of forest fire are as follows

·         Surface Fire - A forest fire may burn primarily as a surface fire, spreading along the ground as the surface litter (senescent leaves and twigs and dry grasses etc) on the forest floor and is engulfed by the spreading flames.

·         Underground Fire - The fires of low intensity, consuming the organic matter beneath and the surface litter of forest floor are sub-grouped as underground fire. In most of the dense forests a thick mantle of organic matter is find on top of the mineral soil. This fire spreads in by consuming such materials. These fires usually spread entirely underground and burn for some meters below the surface. This fire spreads very slowly and in most of the cases it becomes very hard to detect and control such type of fires. They may continue to burn for months and destroy vegetative cover of the soil. The other terminology for this type of fire is Muck fires.

·         Ground Fire - These fires are fires in the sub surface organic fuels, such as duff layers under forest stands, Arctic tundra or taiga, and organic soils of swamps or bogs. There is no clear distinction between underground and ground fires. The smoldering under ground fires sometime changes into Ground fire. This fire burns root and other material on or beneath the surface i.e. burns the herbaceous growth on forest floor together with the layer of organic matter in various stages of decay. They are more damaging than surface fires, as they can destroy vegetation completely. Ground fires burn underneath the surface by smoldering combustion and are more often ignited by surface fires.

·         Crown Fire - A crown fire is one in which the crown of trees and shrubs burn, often sustained by a surface fire. A crown fire is particularly very dangerous in a coniferous forest because resinous material given off burning logs burn furiously. On hill slopes, if the fire starts downhill, it spreads up fast as heated air adjacent to a slope tends to flow up the slope spreading flames along with it. If the fire starts uphill, there is less likelihood of it spreading downwards.

·         Firestorms - Among the forest fires, the fire spreading most rapidly is the firestorm, which is an intense fire over a large area. As the fire burns, heat rises and air rushes in, causing the fire to grow. More air makes the fire spin violently like a storm. Flames fly out from the base and burning ember spew out the top of the fiery twister, starting smaller fires around it. Temperatures inside these storms can reach around 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit.

Vulnerability

The youngest mountain ranges of Himalayas are the most vulnerable stretches of the world susceptible to forest fires. The forests of Western are more frequently vulnerable to forest fires as compared to those in Eastern Himalayas. This is because forests of Eastern Himalayas grow in high rain density. With large scale expansion of chirr (Pine) forests in many areas of the Himalayas the frequency and intensity of forest fires has increased.

Preparedness and Mitigation Measures

Forest fires are usually seasonal. They usually start in the dry season and can be prevented by adequate precautions. Successive Five Year Plans have provided funds for forests fighting. During the British period, fire was prevented in the summer through removal of forest litter all along the forest boundary. This was called "Forest Fire Line" This line used to prevent fire breaking into the forest from one compartment to another. The collected litter was burnt in isolation. Generally, the fire spreads only if there is continuous supply of fuel (Dry vegetation) along its path. The best way to control a forest fire is therefore, to prevent it from spreading, which can be done by creating firebreaks in the shape of small clearings of ditches in the forests.

Precautions

The followings are the important precautions against fire:

·         To keep the source of fire or source of ignition separated from combustible and inflammable material.

·         To keep the source of fire under watch and control.

·         Not allow combustible or inflammable material to pile up unnecessarily and to stock the same as per procedure recommended for safe storage of such combustible or inflammable material.

·         To adopt safe practices in areas near forests viz. factories, coalmines, oil stores, chemical plants and even in household kitchens.

·         To incorporate fire reducing and fire fighting techniques and equipment

Oil spill

An oil spill is the release of a liquidpetroleumhydrocarbon into the environment, especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually given to marineoil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oilfrom tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.

Oil spills penetrate into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up.

Oil spills can have disastrous consequences for society; economically, environmentally, and socially. As a result, oil spill accidents have initiated intense media attention and political uproar, bringing many together in a political struggle concerning government response to oil spills and what actions can best prevent them from happening.

Human impact

An oil spill represents an immediate fire hazard. The Kuwaiti oil fires produced air pollution that caused respiratory distress. The Deepwater Horizon explosion killed eleven oil rig workers. The fire resulting from the Lac-Mégantic derailment killed 47 and destroyed half of the town's centre.

Spilled oil can also contaminate drinking water supplies. For example, in 2013 two different oil spills contaminated water supplies for 300,000 in Miri, Malaysia; 80,000 people in Coca, Ecuador. In 2000, springs were contaminated by an oil spill in Clark County, Kentucky.

Contamination can have an economic impact on tourism and marine resource extraction industries. For example, the Deepwater Horizon oil spill impacted beach tourism and fishing along the Gulf Coast, and the responsible parties were required to compensate economic victims.

Environmental effects

In general, spilled oil can affect animals and plants in two ways: dirесt from the oil and from the response or cleanup process. There is no clear relationship between the amount of oil in the aquatic environment and the likely impact on biodiversity. A smaller spill at the wrong time/wrong season and in a sensitive environment may prove much more harmful than a larger spill at another time of the year in another or even the same environment. Oil penetrates into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing their insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water.

Animals who rely on scent to find their babies or mothers cannot due to the strong scent of the oil. This causes a baby to be rejected and abandoned, leaving the babies to starve and eventually die. Oil can impair a bird's ability to fly, preventing it from foraging or escaping from predators. As they preen, birds may ingest the oil coating their feathers, irritating the digestive tract, altering liverfunction, and causing kidney damage. Together with their diminished foraging capacity, this can rapidly result in dehydration and metabolicimbalance. Some birds exposed to petroleum also experience changes in their hormonal balance, including changes in their luteinizing protein. The majority of birds affected by oil spills die from complications without human intervention. Some studies have suggested that less than one percent of oil-soaked birds survive, even after cleaning, although the survival rate can also exceed ninety percent, as in the case of the Treasure oil spill.

Heavily furred marine mammals exposed to oil spills are affected in similar ways. Oil coats the fur of sea otters and seals, reducing its insulating effect, and leading to fluctuations in body temperature and hypothermia. Oil can also blind an animal, leaving it defenseless. The ingestion of oil causes dehydration and impairs the digestive process. Animals can be poisoned, and may die from oil entering the lungs or liver.

There are three kinds of oil-consuming bacteria. Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and acid-producing bacteria are anaerobic, while general aerobic bacteria (GAB) are aerobic. These bacteria occur naturally and will act to remove oil from an ecosystem, and their biomass will tend to replace other populations in the food chain. The chemicals from the oil which dissolve in water, and hence are available to bacteria, are those in the water associated fraction of the oil.

In addition, oil spills can also harm air quality. The chemicals in crude oil are mostly hydrocarbons that contains toxic chemicals such as benzenes, toluene, poly-aromatic hydrocarbonand oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. These chemicals can introduce adverse health effects when being inhaled into human body. In addition, these chemicals can be oxidized by oxidants in the atmosphere to form fine particulate matter after they evaporate into the atmosphere. These particulates can penetrate lungs and carry toxic chemicals into the human body. Burning surface oil can also be a source for pollution such as soot particles. During the cleanup and recovery process, it will also generate air pollutants such as nitric oxides and ozone from ships. Lastly, bubble bursting can also be a generation pathway for particulate matter during an oil spill. During the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, significant air quality issues were found on the Gulf Coast, which is the downwind of DWH oil spill. Air quality monitoring data showed that criteria pollutants had exceeded the health-based standard in the coastal regions

Sources and rate of occurrence

A VLCC tanker can carry 2 million barrels (320,000 m³) of crude oil. This is about eight times the amount spilled in the widely known Exxon Valdez oil spill. In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped 260,000 barrels (41,000 m³) of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense numbers of fish were killed. Considering the volume of oil carried by sea, however, tanker owners' organisations often argue that the industry's safety record is excellent, with only a tiny fraction of a percentage of oil cargoes carried ever being spilled. The International Association of Independent Tanker Owners has observed that "accidental oil spills this decade have been at record low levels—one third of the previous decade and one tenth of the 1970s—at a time when oil transported has more than doubled since the mid 1980s."

Oil tankers are just one of the many sources of oil spills. According to the United States Coast Guard, 35.7% of the volume of oil spilled in the United States from 1991 to 2004 came from tank vessels (ships/barges), 27.6% from facilities and other non-vessels, 19.9% from non-tank vessels, and 9.3% from pipelines; 7.4% from mystery spills. On the other hand, only 5% of the actual spills came from oil tankers, while 51.8% came from other kinds of vessels.

The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has tracked 9,351 accidental spills that have occurred since 1974. According to this study, most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo, discharging cargo, and taking on fuel oil. 91% of the operational oil spills are small, resulting in less than 7 metric tons per spill. On the other hand, spills resulting from accidents like collisions, groundings, hull failures, and explosions are much larger, with 84% of these involving losses of over 700 metric tons.

Cleanup and recovery

Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. Physical cleanups of oil spills are also very expensive. However, microorganisms such as Fusobacteriaspecies demonstrate an innovative potential for future oil spill cleanup because of their ability to colonize and degrade oil slicks on the sea surface.

Methods for cleaning up include:

·         Bioremediation: use of microorganisms  or biological agents to break down or remove oil; such as the bacteria Alcanivorax or Methylocella Silvestris.

·         Bioremediation Accelerator: Oleophilic, hydrophobic chemical, containing no bacteria, which chemically and physically bonds to both soluble and insoluble hydrocarbons. The bioremediation accelerator acts as a herding agent in water and on the surface, floating molecules to the surface of the water, including solubles such as phenols and BTEX, forming gel-like agglomerations. Undetectable levels of hydrocarbons can be obtained in produced water and manageable water columns. By overspraying sheen with bioremediation accelerator, sheen is eliminated within minutes. Whether applied on land or on water, the nutrient-rich emulsion creates a bloom of local, indigenous, pre-existing, hydrocarbon-consuming bacteria. Those specific bacteria break down the hydrocarbons into water and carbon dioxide, with EPA tests showing 98% of alkanes biodegraded in 28 days; and aromatics being biodegraded 200 times faster than in nature they also sometimes use the hydrofireboom to clean the oil up by taking it away from most of the oil and burning it.

·         Controlled burning can effectively reduce the amount of oil in water, if done properly. But it can only be done in low wind, and can cause air pollution. Oil slicks on Lake Maracaibo

·         Dispersantscan be used to dissipate oil slicks. A dispersant is either a non-surface active polymer or a surface-active substanceadded to a suspension, usually a colloid, to improve the separation of particles and to prevent settling or clumping. They may rapidly disperse large amounts of certain oil types from the sea surface by transferring it into the water column. They will cause the oil slick to break up and form water-soluble micelles that are rapidly diluted. The oil is then effectively spread throughout a larger volume of water than the surface from where the oil was dispersed. They can also delay the formation of persistent oil-in-water emulsions. However, laboratory experiments showed that dispersants increased toxic hydrocarbon levels in fish by a factor of up to 100 and may kill fish eggs. Dispersed oil droplets infiltrate into deeper water and can lethally contaminate coral. Research indicates that some dispersants are toxic to corals. A 2012 study found that Corexit dispersant had increased the toxicity of oil by up to 52 times.

·         Watch and wait: in some cases, natural attenuation of oil may be most appropriate, due to the invasive nature of facilitated methods of remediation, particularly in ecologically sensitive areas such as wetlands.

·         Dredging: for oils dispersed with detergents and other oils denser than water.

·         Skimming: Requires calm waters at all times during the process.

·         Solidifying: Solidifiers are composed of tiny, floating, dry ice pellets, and hydrophobic polymers that both adsorb and absorb. They clean up oil spills by changing the physical state of spilled oil from liquid to a solid, semi-solid or a rubber-like material that floats on water. Solidifiers are insoluble in water, therefore the removal of the solidified oil is easy and the oil will not leach out. Solidifiers have been proven to be relatively non-toxic to aquatic and wild life and have been proven to suppress harmful vapors commonly associated with hydrocarbons such as benzene, xyleneand naphtha. The reaction time for solidification of oil is controlled by the surface area or size of the polymer or dry pellets as well as the viscosity and thickness of the oil layer. Some solidifier product manufactures claim the solidified oil can be thawed and used if frozen with dry ice or disposed of in landfills, recycled as an additive in asphalt or rubber products, or burned as a low ash fuel. A solidifier called C.I.Agent (manufactured by C.I.Agent Solutions of Louisville, Kentucky) is being used by BP in granular form, as well as in Marine and Sheen Booms at Dauphin Island and Fort Morgan, Alabama, to aid in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill cleanup.

·         Vacuum and centrifuge: oil can be sucked up along with the water, and then a centrifuge can be used to separate the oil from the water – allowing a tanker to be filled with near pure oil. Usually, the water is returned to the sea, making the process more efficient, but allowing small amounts of oil to go back as well. This issue has hampered the use of centrifuges due to a United States regulation limiting the amount of oil in water returned to the sea.

·         Beach Raking: coagulated oil that is left on the beach can be picked up by machinery.

Equipment used includes:

·         Booms: large floating barriers that round up oil and lift the oil off the water

·         Skimmers: skim the oil

·         Sorbents: large absorbents that absorb oil

·         Chemical and biological agents: helps to break down the oil

·         Vacuums: remove oil from beaches and water surface

·         Shovels and other road equipment: typically used to clean up oil on beaches

Prevention

·         Secondary containment – methods to prevent releases of oil or hydrocarbons into environment.

·         Oil Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) program by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.

·         Double-hulling – build double hulls into vessels, which reduces the risk and severity of a spill in case of a collision or grounding. Existing single-hull vessels can also be rebuilt to have a double hull.

·         Thick-hulled railroad transport tanks.

Spill response procedures should include elements such as;

·         A listing of appropriate protective clothing, safety equipment, and cleanup materials required

for spill cleanup (gloves, respirators, etc.) and an explanation of their proper use;

·         Appropriate evacuation zones and procedures;

·         Availability of fire suppression equipment;

·         Disposal containers for spill cleanup materials; and

·         The first aid procedures that might be required.

Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) mapping

Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps are used to identify sensitive shoreline resources prior to an oil spill event in order to set priorities for protection and plan cleanup strategies. By planning spill response ahead of time, the impact on the environment can be minimized or prevented. Environmental sensitivity index maps are basically made up of information within the following three categories: shoreline type, and biological and human-use resources.

Shoreline type

Shoreline type is classified by rank depending on how easy the target site would be to clean up, how long the oil would persist, and how sensitive the shoreline is. The floating oil slicks put the shoreline at particular risk when they eventually come ashore, covering the substrate with oil. The differing substrates between shoreline types vary in their response to oiling, and influence the type of cleanup that will be required to effectively decontaminate the shoreline. In 1995, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrationextended ESI maps to lakes, rivers, and estuary shoreline types. The exposure the shoreline has to wave energy and tides, substrate type, and slope of the shoreline are also taken into account—in addition to biological productivity and sensitivity. The productivity of the shoreline habitat is also taken into account when determining ESI ranking. Mangroves and marshes tend to have higher ESI rankings due to the potentially long-lasting and damaging effects of both the oil contamination and cleanup actions. Impermeable and exposed surfaces with high wave action are ranked lower due to the reflecting waves keeping oil from coming onshore, and the speed at which natural processes will remove the oil.

Biological resources

Habitats of plants and animals that may be at risk from oil spills are referred to as "elements" and are divided by functional group. Further classification divides each element into species groups with similar life histories and behaviors relative to their vulnerability to oil spills. There are eight element groups: Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, Fish, Invertebrates, Habitats and Plants, Wetlands, and Marine Mammals and Terrestrial Mammals. Element groups are further divided into sub-groups, for example, the ‘marine mammals’ element group is divided into dolphins, manatees, pinnipeds (seals, sea lions & walruses), polar bears, sea otters and whales. Problems taken into consideration when ranking biological resources include the observance of a large number of individuals in a small area, whether special life stages occur ashore (nesting or molting), and whether there are species present that are threatened, endangered or rare.

Human-use resources

Human use resources are divided into four major classifications; archaeological importance or cultural resource site, high-use recreational areas or shoreline access points, important protected management areas, or resource origins. Some examples include airports, diving sites, popular beach sites, marinas, natural reserves or marine sanctuaries.

Estimating the volume of a spill

By observing the thickness of the film of oil and its appearance on the surface of the water, it is possible to estimate the quantity of oil spilled. If the surface area of the spill is also known, the total volume of the oil can be calculated.

Oil spill model systems are used by industry and government to assist in planning and emergency decision making. Of critical importance for the skill of the oil spill model prediction is the adequate description of the wind and current fields. There is a worldwide oil spill modelling (WOSM) program. Tracking the scope of an oil spill may also involve verifying that hydrocarbons collected during an ongoing spill are derived from the active spill or some other source. This can involve sophisticated analytical chemistry focused on finger printing an oil source based on the complex mixture of substances present. Largely, these will be various hydrocarbons, among the most useful being polyaromatic hydrocarbons. In addition, both oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons, such as parent and alkyl homologues of carbazole, quinoline, and pyridine, are present in many crude oils. As a result, these compounds have great potential to supplement the existing suite of hydrocarbons targets to fine-tune source tracking of petroleum spills. Such analysis can also be used to follow weathering and degradation of crude spills.

Traffic accidents in India

Traffic accidents in India are a major source of deaths, injuries and property damage every year. The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) 2016 report states there were 496,762 roads, railways and railway crossing-related traffic accidents in 2015. Of these, road accidents accounted for 464,674 accidents which caused 148,707 traffic-related deaths in India. The three highest total number of fatalities were reported in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, and together they accounted for about 33% of total Indian traffic fatalities in 2015. Adjusted for 182.45 million vehicles and its 1.31 billion population, India reported a traffic accident rate of about 0.8 per 1000 vehicles in 2015 compared to 0.9 per 1000 vehicles in 2012, and an 11.35 fatality rate per 100,000 people in 2015. According to Gururaj, the top three highest traffic fatality rates per 100,000 people in 2005 were reported by Tamil Nadu, Goa and Haryana, with a male:female fatality ratio of about 5:1. The reported total fatality, rates per 100,000 people and the regional variation of traffic accidents per 100,000 people varies by source. For example, Rahul Goel in 2018 reports an India-wide average fatality rate of 11.6 per 100,000 people and Goa to be the state with the highest fatality rate.

According to the 2013 global survey of traffic accidents by the UN World Health Organization, India suffered a road fatality rate of 16.6 per 100,000 people in 2013. India's average traffic accident fatality rate was similar to the world average rate of 17.4 deaths per 100,000 people, less than the low-income countries which averaged 24.1 deaths per 100,000, and higher than the high-income countries which reported the lowest average rate of 9.2 deaths per 100,000 in 2013

Extent of traffic accidents

Tamil Nadu records the highest road accidents for a decade and its capital Chennai has more accidents than any other city in India.

In New Delhi, the capital of India, the frequency of traffic collisions is 40 times higher than the rate in London, the capital of the United Kingdom.

Traffic collision-related deaths increased from 13 per hour in 2008 to 14 per hour in 2009. More than 40 per cent of these casualties are associated with motorcycles and trucks. The most accident-prone time on Indian roads is during the peak hour at afternoon and evening

According to road traffic safety experts, the actual number of casualties may be higher than what is documented, as many traffic accidents go unreported. Moreover, victims who die some time after the accident, a span of time which may vary from a few hours to several days, are not counted as car accident victims.

In 2015, one person dies every 4 minutes in roads accidents in India, according to NGO 'Indians for Road Safety'.

Contributing factors

The "GlobStatus Report on Road Safety" published by the World Health Organization(WHO) identified the major causes of traffic collisions as driving over the speed limit, driving under the influence, and not using helmets and seat belts. Failure to maintain lane or yield to oncoming traffic when turning are prime causes of accidents on four lane, non-access controlled National Highways. The report noted users of motorcycles and motor-powered three-wheelers constitute the second largest group of traffic collision deaths.

Economic cost

 

The Planning Commissionin its 2001–2003 research estimated that traffic collision resulted in an annual monetary loss of $10 billion (INR550 billion) during the years 1999–2000. In 2012, the International Road Federation (IRF) estimated that traffic collision results in an annual monetary loss of $20 billion (INR 1 trillion (short scale)) in India. This figure includes expenses associated with the accident victim, property damage and administration expenses.

Measures to reduce traffic collisions

The Campaign Against Drunken Driving (CADD) is an organization founded by Prince Singhal which is campaigning against driving under the influence. But this campaign has been ineffective. The IRF asserts that people in India's political sphere do not have the will to curb traffic accidents. Harman Singh Siddhu of ArriveSafe, an organization working for improvement in road traffic safety, asserted that a general lack of respect for traffic rules in India is a contributing factor for road accidents. He also has pointed out that although the 2010s was declared by the United Nations as "Decade of Action for Road Safety", no celebration was held in India. CSIR - Central Road Research Institute has developed an online accident recording portal. The main purpose of this portal is to encourage people to report the accidents they see. A group of Indian Researchers have developed a low-cost device which prevents automobile drivers from receiving or making cellphone calls when at wheel, but allows calls to other passengers in the vehicle.

Road safety policies in India

Road safety is emerging as a major social concern in the country and the Indian government has been attempting to tackle this crucial issue for several years. The Road Transport and Safety Bill 2014was to provide a framework for safer, faster, cost-effective and inclusive movement of passengers and freight in India. In July 2015, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi said his government will soon introduce laws to enhance road safety as traffic fatalities and injuries mount. A new Road Transport and Safety Bill is under preparation and a group of experts underlined the "urgent" need of a comprehensive national road safety legislation.

Embarq India, an initiative from the World Resources Institute (WRI), has developed significant expertise in conducting road safety audits on a number of bus rapid transit systems in India. Arrive SAFE is a NGO who works as a pressure group to give a wake-up call to authorities concerned and shake the bad driving habits of Indian people. Indian driving schools focus on youth to enhance the art and skill of efficient driving.

Many multinational companies fund NGOs as part of their own road safety initiatives:

Maruti Suzuki closely works with Ministry of Tribal Development in Gujarat to train young people in driving.

Michelin, co-founder of the Global Road Safety Initiatives (GRSI), has established, in India, an innovative partnership with the foundation of PVR Cinemas, PVR Nest as part of its CineArt "Steer to Safety" program to educate and empower children about road safety. Through this platform, children learn how to prevent and/or manage in emergency situations on Indian roads.

Henkel has launched a road safety initiative in an effort to address the topical issue of safety standards on the road in India.

List of major accidents

Gujarat 2016

On 5 February 2016, at least 37 people died and 24 others were injured in Gujarat after a passenger bus plunged off a bridge over the Purna River.

Karnataka 2018

30 people were killed on 24 November 2018 when a bus plunged into Vishweshwaraiah Canal near Pandavapura, Mandya district, Karnataka.